48. Human cerebral potentials associated with rapid eye movements during REM sleep. This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. This allows us to see the irrational as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1989;86:8737-41. Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. Generally, in humans oniric activity is expressed as eye movements, what is obviously linked to vision as the main human sensory channel. The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. Science 1994;265:676-9. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. This fundamental issue in learning is, however, still far from being settled, inasmuch as there are several controversial facts in the pertinent literature. 104. Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. 78. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. Hobson JA, Pace-Schott EF, Stickgold R. Dreaming and the brain: toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states. 113. 54. 117. 55. Vertes RP. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. Mirmiran M. The function of fetal neonatal rapid eye movement sleep. 11. Webanalyzing dreams. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. Mol Brain Res 1996;38:77-84. 92. Nature 1989;340:474-6. Steriade M, McCarley RW. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. Thomas J, Benoit O. Individualisation d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique. In cats and monkeys eye movements are accompanied by monophasic spiky potentials in the occipital cortex, in the lateral geniculate body and in the pontine tegmentum (66-69). Shiromani PJ, Winston S, McCarley RW. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Reticulospinal and reticulobulbar tracts are involved in conveying to the motoneurons the impulses that cause oniric movements. Brain Develop 1994;16:81-91. Maquet et al. Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? 4. NeuroReport 1995;6:532-6. Moruzzi G. The sleep-wakefulness cycle. 99. 1. 41. Schmidt MH, Sakai K, Valatrix JL, Jouvet M. The effects of spinal mesencephalic transections on sleep-related erections and ex-copula penile reflexes in the rat. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). Science 1966;153:206-8. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. Correspondence between sites of NGFI-A inductions in sites of morphological plasticity following exposure to environmental complexity. Narcolepsy. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:203-6. J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. Rothschuch KR. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). Van de Castle RL. Kahn D, Pace-Schott EF, Hobson JA. Geniculate spike activity in primate sleep and wakefulness. Forebrain activation in REM sleep: an FDG, PET study. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as disorganized as such views imply. 56. 93. According to this impossible hypothesis, during desynchronized sleep, in which the brain is rather isolated from its normal input/output, a non-specific endogenous activation in the brain stem is probably responsible for the reverse learning. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. In some animals, however, a reduction of heart rate and respiration may occur, what also happens during an attentive wakefulness if they are threatened. In rats penile erection in desynchronized sleep has also been detected and was found to cease after spinal transection; following mesencephalic transections that spare desynchronized sleep, penile erection was deeply reduced (11). Dreams in which walking occurs are very common (4,5) and coincide with limb movements, however faulty. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. 85. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Temporal patterns of discharges of pyramidal tract neurons during sleep and waking in the monkey. 134. Sleep Res 1973;4:65. J Physiol (London) 1993;461:549-63. Arch Gen Psychiat 1966;14:238-48. The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. No PGO potentials have been found in rats (70). During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). 1996 Sep 12;383(6596):163-6. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. In humans, both reflex activities are also deeply inhibited during desynchronized sleep. Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. Brain Res 1979;176:233-54. Oniric behaviors, as any other behavior during wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative. Dream recall and eye movement during sleep and their relation to eye movements, bodily motility and dreaming. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. 131. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? In humans, equivalent potentials can be recorded from the occipital cortex. Desynchronization is the rule, during this phase, in all cortical electro-oscillograms in humans and other primates. In humans it has been shown that not only EEG desynchronization but also increase in vegetative functions, such as heart rate and ventilation (27), accompany mental activity. 115. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. 98. WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. In rats we have recorded ear movements in paradoxical sleep, which we attribute to the occurrence of auditory dreams (see Figure 9). University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake.Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. Acta Med Iug 1978;32:45-50. We spend a lot of time sleeping. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. 132. Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. This may well reflect auditory dreams, as has been found in humans (36,37). Brain Develop (Tokyo) 1992;14:109-20. Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. 26. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. These findings point to a decreased activation of executive and association cortex during desynchronized sleep, what is suggestive that the processes involved in building up wakeful thought and dreaming may be distinct. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. In: C. Guilleminaut, W. C. Dement and P. Passouant (eds.) In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies 110. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). The cycle of sleep in the rat (preliminary report). Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1987;66:383-90. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Salvert D, Touret M, Toyama M, Jouvet M. Tegmentoreticular projections with special reference to the muscular distonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. According to Mancia (1995), the brain "produces dreams" as "a symbolic process of elaborating, interpreting and reorganizing in narrative sequences all the material accumulated in the memory during waking hours". Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. 109. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:20-1. The meaning of dreams. 42. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. However, they ignored that the dreams were produced by the brain. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. 8600 Rockville Pike The pressure also exhibits a series of bumps, that may be related to dreaming activity (figure 6) (62). In: Baust, W. During the second century of the present era, Galen, a Greek physician who practiced Medicine in Rome and was a great anatomist and clinician, knew that temperature, heart rate and respiration exhibited cyclic changes at night, which he attributed to dreaming (3). Different effects of several brain areas may affect dreaming in different ways. Analysis of the electro-oscillograms yields extremely relevant information that can be correlated with movements and changes in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration. Epub 2009 Oct 1. 102. J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. Jouvet M. The role of monoamines and acetylcholine-containing neurons in the regulation of the sleep-waking cycle. It should be recalled here that, comparing the dream content in humans with events of the previous day, Calkins found in 1876 that nearly 89% of the reported dreams were closely related to such events. Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. Brain Res 2002, submitted. WebHe says the function of dreams is that by reproducing difficult or unsolved life situations or experiences, the dream aids towards a solving or resolution of the problems. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1990;76:388-99. 128. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). Before Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. (1991) and Lovblad et al. Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. He gives Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. 63. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Dreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. Even in humans, such electrophysiological, motor and vegetative signs of oniric activity are enough to know that a dream is going on. (ed. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". 19. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. 69. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. It is interesting to consider that while muscles all over the body are paralyzed during sleep, respiration is little affected, except that some muscles in the upper respiratory airways are inhibited during sleep (44). In fact, we ignore almost completely why we dream. Further developments in neurobiological research, including lesion and brain imaging studies, have established a clearer view of the functional neuroanatomy of REM sleep and dreaming. Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. Several theories claim that dreaming is a random by-product of REM sleep physiology and that it does not serve any natural function. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. Soja PJ, Lopez-Rodriguez F, Morales FR, Chase MH. Absence of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) spikes in rats. Recall of dreams is much greater and the report is much more detailed when one is awakened during desynchronized sleep and the stage I of synchronized sleep, right after alpha waves disappear and are replaced by a lower frequency and lower voltage electro-oscillographic pattern (22,23). Krueger JM, Obl F. A neuronal group theory of sleep function. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. The function of dreaming Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. They include facilitation of memory storage, reverse learning, anatomical and functional brain maturation, catecholamine restoration, psychoanalytical (wish fulfilment or otherwise). It i Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. WebDreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. Nikolaev E, Kaminska B, Tischmeyer W, Matthies E, Kaczmarek L. Induction of expression of genes encoding transcription factors in the rat brain elicited by behavioral training. 29. Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. 105. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). During oniric activity, however, phasic increases in heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation do occur that are closely related to the dream that is going on. Aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). Geschichte der Physiologie. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. Wehr TA. 116. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Kohyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Nikami T, yamaki T, Veda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake. Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. J Ment Nerv Dis 1966;141:623-50. Neuroscience 1997;81:893-926. The Psychology of Dreaming. Behav Brain Res 1997;84:109-16. Revonsuo A. It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam, 1962. In cats, cortical electro-oscillograms are also desynchronized but in the hippocampus theta waves (that will be later described) predominate. Cravo SLD, Lopes OU, Fraga CAB, Timo-Iaria C. Cardiovascular adjustments to noxious stimulation in decerebrate cats. These patients are not able to produce visual reminiscences, which may be explained by the fact that visual information is permanently kept in the visual cortex. In cats, Baust (1971) recorded tachycardia starting 1 or 2 seconds before eye movements appear (38). Braz J Med Biol Res 1992;5:745-50. In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. The dream between neuroscience and psychoanalysis. Sleeping and Waking. National Library of Medicine Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. There are other definitions of the word dream, too. PMC Control of ventilation during sleep. The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". Nature 1989;304:111-4. The most prominent, the activation-synthesis hypothesis, derived its view of dreaming directly from the neurophysiology of REM sleep, in particular the role of the brain stem, and in its original form regarded dreams as not essentially meaningful. 46. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. In 1867, Michelson, a physiologist who was a relative to Kohlschtter, replicated his study and obtained the curve shown in figure 1 (4,8). ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. An important contemporary of these authors, Charles Darwin, in his landmarking book Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872 and reedited several times in the twentieth century (6), states that "at least birds and mammals do dream", a concept that still remains unchallenged, despite which most researchers that carry out studies on sleep still hold that dreaming is specifically human. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. Of mind the rule, during this bright period of the sleep-waking cycle receptor.! Messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation we do dream preparation. 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